TNF and atrial fibrillation: Inflammation, a common factor in a variety of cardiovascular diseases, increases the risk of AF and inflammatory cytokines, such as IL (interleukin)-1β, IL-6, GM-CSF (granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor), and TNF (tumor necrosis factor)-α, and is associated with atrial structural and electrical remodeling that triggers AF (28, 29).