TNF and systemic lupus erythematosus: CX3CL1 induced by TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, and IL-1-beta play roles in various diseases and complications, such as atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), HIV infection, cancer, etc. Serum CX3CL1 levels are increased in patients with RA and patients with SLE, and correlate disease activity [28,29].