TNF and viral infectious disease: For the indirect effects, viral infection generally occurs in the non-vascular sites, and activates innate immune responses inducing the expression of pro-inflammatory and/or prothrombotic cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6, INF-γ, and TNF-α in the non-vascular site; macrophages circulate and move to vascular cells and become imported to the site to induce phagocytosis of oxLDLs and the formation of foam cells and plaque [99,100].