TNF and viral infectious disease: For the direct effects, the viral infection activates and accelerates the innate immune responses, and the activated innate immune cells can help to further express various pro-inflammatory and/or prothrombotic cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6, INF-γ, and TNF-α, which can activate and promote macrophages within the vascular cells; LDLs are also found in the form of oxLDL, and these oxLDLs in the infected cells and tissues are phagocytized by macrophages, which will induce the generation of the foam cells and plaque [99,100].