CCL2 and atherosclerosis: In addition, animal model studies confirmed that the transmission of cytomegalovirus can provoke and aggravate atherosclerosis by hyperactivation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, increasing levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α, the upregulation of vascular cell adhesion protein 1, also known as vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1 (ICAM-1), and MCP-1, and the expansion of the lesion size [77,78,79].