GM-CSF: The highest concentration of capsaicin (500 μM) significantly decreased GM-CSF release from BEC cultures from both non-smokers (mean ± SEM = 0.010 ± 0.006 vs. 0.049 ± 0.011 pg/μg cellular protein; p < 0.05) and COPD patients (mean ± SEM = 0.0057 ± 0.0004 vs. 0.018 ± 0.003 pg/μg cellular protein; p < 0.01), while no significant change was found in cultures of smokers (Figure 4). Here, CSF2 is linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.