MTOR and epilepsy: In addition, glutamergic stimulation of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) receptors can activate the intracellular signaling pathways of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), AKT and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), contributing to both cell growth and epilepsy (De Groot et al., 2011; Englot et al., 2016a).