Studies have further found that the TGF-β1 can participate in Smad signaling pathway by regulating the expression of TGF-β1 activated kinase and TGF-β1-fibroblast protein kinase C-alpha (PKC-alpha) pathway by regulating the expression of alpha-SMA to affect atrial fibrosis and structural remodeling and lead to AF [27, 28]. The gene discussed is TGFB1; the disease is atrial fibrillation.