TNF and type 1 diabetes mellitus: High glucose levels (>16.7mmol/L) have a negative impact on the function of macrophages, mainly in the form of dysregulated secretion levels of cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10, and decreased metabolic activity in T1DM mice (73); in combination with enhanced pro-inflammatory macrophages was found in T1DM mice in in vitro experiments, resulting in a higher risk of infection (74).