TNF and obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency: Despite some inconsistent results, most studies in the literature have shown that mothers with pre-pregnancy obesity have elevated pro-inflammatory markers/cytokines, such as IL-8, IL-6, CRP, TNF-α and IFN-γ (Madan et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2010; Englich et al., 2017; Kretschmer et al., 2020; Maguire et al., 2021) and altered adipokines (Hinkle et al., 2019; Jara et al., 2020; Jaramillo-Ospina et al., 2021).