Recently, it has been reported that anti-cancer effects of programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) and its ligand (PD-L1) blockade therapy were enhanced by the selective inhibition of TGF-β1 signaling using antibodies, such as anti-GARP:TGF-β1 (ABBV-151) and anti-latent TGF-β1 (SRK-181) antibodies.24, 25, 26 Regarding other aptamer approaches targeting TGF-β receptors,48,49 isolated aptamers so far appeared yet to be optimized, and hence, no in vivo evaluation was carried out, thereby making it difficult to deeply discuss its therapeutic effects at present. This evidence concerns the gene PDCD1 and cancer.