Alongside these, increased Hcy is accompanied with upregulation of several pro-inflammatory cytokines, namely, Interleukin-1β, Interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor α, monocyte chemotactic proteins 1, and intracellular adhesion molecule-1, which initiate the inflammation cascade and affect the occurrence and development of AF (39, 41). Here, TNF is linked to atrial fibrillation.