Positive results from these animal models led to the exploration of IL-1 signaling blockade in COPD patients, though little to no benefit to lung function or exacerbation risk was observed in these trials: e.g., canakinumab and MEDI8968 (Table 1) (Novartis, 2011; Rogliani et al., 2015; Calverley et al., 2017). This evidence concerns the gene IL1A and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.