TNF and viral infectious disease: Viral infections result in the release of chemokines in lung tissue, which stimulates the migration of various immune cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils, to the lungs, and can result in the over-activation of immune cells, causing the production of a large number of cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 (Soy et al., 2020).