CXCL12 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: As for metabolism regulation, SDF-1 expression is upregulated in conditions of insulin resistance in animal models, human adipocytes, and in obese individuals with T2DM [39]; SDF-1 significantly reduces glucose uptake by adipocytes IRS-1 levels, attenuating Akt phosphorylation, and impairing insulin signaling [39,63].