GCG and Insulin resistance: Aβ oligomers were shown to trigger IRS-1 phosphorylation and insulin resistance by stimulating JNK activity (Ma et al., 2009; Bomfim et al., 2012), whereas a GLP-1 analog protected from insulin pathway desensitization in a manner that was dependent on the suppression of JNK as well as the expression and release of TNF-α by hippocampal neurons (Bomfim et al., 2012).