INS and Parkinson disease: Besides directly upregulating the activity of the mTor-inducer Akt in AD (Chen et al., 2012; Ma et al., 2012; Cai et al., 2014; Qi et al., 2016; Cao et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2019; Paladugu et al., 2021) and PD (Ji et al., 2016; Jalewa et al., 2017) animal models, GLP-1 re-invigorated the impaired IR/PI3K/Akt/mTor insulin pathway, as impeded by inflammation and Aβ, in neurons (Figure 1 and details in section “GLP-1R activation re-sensitises insulin signaling in the brain during AD and PD”).