TNF and cancer: Evasion of immune recognition or immune escape (36) is now a recognised hallmark of cancer (9) and this inclination towards pro-tumour growth is mediated by changes in cytokine signalling (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10 and TGF-β) (37, 38) and recruitment of TME-immunosuppressive immune cells such as tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) (39) and regulatory T cells (Tregs) (40, 41).