INS and pancreatic insulinoma: In a small percentage of women with GDM, usually <10%, GDM diagnosis is associated with autoimmunity against pancreatic β-cells (i.e. autoimmune destruction of β-cells), following expression of T1D-related autoimmune antibodies (autoantibodies) such as insulin autoantibodies (IAA), islet cell antibodies (ICA), insulinoma-associated protein-2 antibodies (IA-2A), glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies (GADA), and zinc transporter 8 antibodies (ZnT8A) (13–15).