TNF and neoplasm: High levels of circulating immunosuppressive, tumor-promoting cytokines, such as transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), interleukin (IL)- 1β, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and lower levels of tumor-suppressive cytokines, e.g. IL-11, IL-12, and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), have been found to correlate with poor prognosis in PDAC patients (16–21).