Surgical vagotomy or parasympathetic nerve stimulation via type 1 muscarinic receptors resulted in suppressed pancreatic tumor development in mice [40,73], by inhibiting the release of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) from macrophages, decreasing MAPK and phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) activity in tumor cells, and suppressing the expansion of cancer stem cell populations. This evidence concerns the gene TNF and cancer.