The Toll pathway acts via the transcription factor Rel1, and primarily responds to Gram(+) bacteria, fungi and rodent malaria parasites, whereas the IMD and interlinked JNK pathways act via the transcription factors Rel2 and JNK, respectively, and primarily respond to Gram(–) bacteria and human malaria parasites [17,18]. This evidence concerns the gene TLR4 and malaria.