Meanwhile, H. pylori infection can affect the balance of gastrointestinal hormones such as leptin, ghrelin and gastrin, and alter the fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates, the generation of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) through intestinal flora and may be involved in the occurrence of metabolic diseases such as insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes (Martin-Nunez et al., 2021; Hu et al., 2022). Here, GCG is linked to metabolic disease.