The activation of IFNs signaling drive the activation and maturation of antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), which subsequently present the antigens to naive T cell through a combination of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and T cell receptor (TCR), thereby engaging the differentiation of naive T or B lymphocytes to initiate cellular and humoral immunity for eventual virus clearance.312,313 A few studies have identified that RNF proteins regulate several steps in adaptive immune responses against viral infection (Fig. 6). Here, TRIM31 is linked to viral infectious disease.