TNF and viral infectious disease: Treatment with anti-TNFα antibodies has proven successful at reducing inflammation in clinical trials (263) and may be a safe strategy for reducing GI tract inflammation that results from viral infection, either chronically in HIV or acutely in SARS-CoV-2; indeed anti-TNFα antibodies were successful at reducing pulmonary pathology in a case study of a COVID-19 patient (264) and in inflammation and pathology in progressive SIV infection (79).