GDF15 and Myocardial fibrosis: In addition, some biomarkers have also been identified as potential AF risk factors, such as myocardial injury (troponin), cardiovascular stress and dysfunction (natriuretic peptides, growth differentiation factor 15), myocardial fibrosis (galectin-3), renal dysfunction (creatinine, cystatin C), inflammation (C-reactive protein, cytokines), and coagulation activity (D-dimer).