In our study, we found that the CeD-associated cells both in LP (CD4-C1 and CD8-C0) and in epithelium (IELs-C1) are associated with several viral/bacterial-related pathways in which the ‘NOD-like receptor signaling pathway’74–76, including the common genes IFI16 and GBP2/4/5, is unanimously upregulated in all the CeD-associated LP T and IEL cells (Supplementary Data 1). Here, GBP2 is linked to cranioectodermal dysplasia.