TNF and HIV infectious disease: We found that HIV infection significantly increased the expression and release of human IL-8, IL-6, IL-13 (p < 0.01), IFN-γ, TNF- α (p < 0.05), with significant reductions in IL-1β (p < 0.05) in the lungs of HIV-infected hu-mice, compared to uninfected controls (Figure 2). These results confirm that our hu-mice secreted pro-inflammatory cytokines in their lungs upon HIV infection.