In addition, several Th1 (TNF-α, TNF-β), Th2 (IL-18), and Th17 (IL-17) markers were significantly elevated or trended upwards in at least one IAV infected ALI tissue compared to uninfected controls (Supplementary Fig. 8), demonstrating a modest but sustained inflammatory response to influenza, especially in the alveolar ALI tissue. Here, TNF is linked to influenza.