TNF and malaria: The humoral response to malaria parasites includes immune activation of macrophages and lymphocytes (CD8+, CD4+, natural killer (NK) cells) and activation of monocytes, resulting in accumulation of immune cells in the microvasculature and a systemic inflammatory response secreted by proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-γ, and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), which are elevated in an episode of acute CM.