Namely, E. coli stress response genes gadA and gadB, ibpA and ibpB, are upregulated in response to chronic intestinal inflammation in the interleukin-10 deficient (Il10-/-) IBD mouse model and pro-carcinogenic E. coli pks genes are upregulated in response to IBD-associated cancer in azoxymethane (AOM)/Il10-/- mice (Patwa et al., 2011; Tchaptchet et al., 2013; Arthur et al., 2014). Here, IL10 is linked to inflammatory bowel disease.