BAs influence metabolic processes by acting as signaling molecules via the nuclear receptors FXR, the pregnane X receptor, the vitamin D receptor, Takeda G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor, and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2, initiating a variety of signaling cascades relevant to metabolic and hepatic diseases such as obesity, steatosis and steatohepatitis, as well as liver and colon cancer (Lefebvre et al., 2009; Wan and Sheng, 2018). Here, VDR is linked to obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.