TNF and acute kidney injury: Compared with the AKI model group, the Neu-NVs, hucMSC-sEVs, and NEX treatment groups effectively reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IFN-α, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-17 (Fig. 5a–h), while the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-10 (Fig. 5i, j) and autoimmune-related indicators such as IL-5 and IL-12P70 had not been significantly affected (Fig. 5h, l).