TNF and infection: In the primary infection, the mRNA levels of cytokines and chemokines including RANTES, IFN-α, MIP-1-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, IP-10, TNF-α, and IL-1-β were increased in the nasal mucosa (Figure 8A) and lung (Figure 8B), except IL-1-β, which was not increased in the lung (Figure 8B).