In addition, endothelial cell activation, mechanistically closely linked to endothelial dysfunction, is characterized by an upregulated expression of intracellular, vascular, and leukocyte adhesion molecules on the surface of endothelial cells (ICAM-1, ICAM-3, VCAM-1, E-selectin) [46,47,48,49]. Here, VCAM1 is linked to endothelial dysfunction.