The genes enriched in the DCIS state were associated with regulation of stress response (Hspa1a, Hspa1b), apoptosis (Txnip, Bex3, Gadd45a, and Ankrd1), proliferation (Cebpd, Nfkbia) and inflammation (Ccl20, F3, Icam1); however, most genes identified between the cancer cells in prepuberty, and DCIS states were shared in both states (Fig. 2d; Supplementary File 2). This evidence concerns the gene GADD45A and cancer.