TLR4 and infection: PBMCs were stimulated ex vivo to trigger pathogen sensing and cytokine signaling response pathways in innate and adaptive immune cells relevant during infection (TLR4 stimulant lipopolysaccharide [LPS] and TLR7/8 agonist CL097, interferon alpha [IFNα], interleukin-2 [IL-2], IL-4, and IL-6 cytokine cocktail, and cell stimulation cocktail consisting of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate [PMA] and ionomycin [I] [PI]) (Figure 1B).