After 4 weeks post-MI rats showed significant LA fibrosis, prolonged interatrial conduction time and atrial refractory periods as well as an increased inducibility of AF, accompanied by elevated numbers of recruited CD68+ macrophages and increased expression of IL-1β and TNF-α in LA indicating proarrhythmic structural and electrical remodeling together with an inflammatory response (Figure 2D). Here, TNF is linked to atrial fibrillation.