TNF and mastitis: For example, EV downregulated the levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and iNOS via NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mastitis and adjuvant-induced arthritis, suppressing the production of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in adjuvant-induced synovial inflammation in rats (Zhang et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2022).