TNF and COVID-19: In addition, hyperinflammation and a subsequent “cytokine storm,” which is characterized by the increased expression levels of different proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF and IL-6), have been observed in severe COVID-19 cases (Song et al., 2022), which indicates that immune regulation plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 (Nicholls et al., 2003; Mahallawi et al., 2018).