MAPK3 and Alzheimer disease: The signaling pathway of the microtubule-associated protein kinase (MAPK) which includes c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), and p38 is increased in brain extracts of AD patients; chronically elevated levels of Aβ induce its dysregulation in the hippocampus and is a key element of the neuroinflammatory pathways triggered by glial cells during the development of AD [191, 192].