TNF and chronic kidney disease: In CKD, the activation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) generates ROS, stimulating NF-κB to promote the expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 1 (IL-1), IL-2, and IL-6, MCP-1 (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1), among others [43,44] (Figure 2A).