In addition, one study found that in the renal tubules after acute kidney injury, glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) overactivity impaired NRF2 antioxidant response via a KEAP1-independent mechanism, resulting in persistent oxidative damages that lead to chronic kidney disease (CKD) (Lu et al., 2019a). Here, KEAP1 is linked to chronic kidney disease.