TLR4 and epilepsy: Riazi et al. (2010) found that intestinal inflammation exacerbates seizures, and inducing peripheral inflammation using LPS increases epilepsy susceptibility. Endogenous ligands of TLR4, including HMGB1 and IL-1β, are produced by glial cells after brain injury, thereby mimicking LPS to exert pro-inflammatory effects (Devinsky et al., 2013).