TNF and infection: In line with these findings, our results showed increased levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α in supernatants from NS1-transfected cells, because Th1 cytokines such as IFN-γ and TNF-α can induce IL-6, there could be a potential role for NS1 in triggering various inflammatory and autoimmune disorders that have been linked to hPVB19 infections.