The CCL5/CCR5 axis has also been reported to be engaged in the activation of several signaling pathways, including JAK/STAT, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, HIF‐α, TGF‐β‐smad, and NF‐κB axes that are implicated in inflammation, angiogenesis, tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis, and metastasis.165, 166, 167. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and neoplasm.