TNF and Cognitive impairment: Higher levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α are present in the CSF of patients with mild cognitive impairment who go on to develop AD.26 However, a degree of pro-inflammatory signalling may actually be beneficial in AD.25 Of note, studies using murine models of AD suggest that the pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6 and TNF-α, may accelerate amyloid beta plaque clearance.27,28