TNF and malaria: Elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the serum, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17, IFN-γ, IP-10/CXCL10 (binds to CXCR3) and MCP-1/CCL2 (binds to CCR2) (Day et al., 1999; Armah et al., 2007; Cox-Singh et al., 2011; Kinra and Dutta, 2013; Mandala et al., 2017), and reduced levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines, TGF-β (Esamai et al., 2003; Andrade et al., 2010), have been associated with severe malaria in humans and has been described extensively for cerebral malaria.