TNF and tuberculosis: As mentioned previously, the production of TNF and IL1-β by innate immune cells, the development of effective Th1 responses characterized by IFN-γ and TNF production, as well as the formation of stable granulomas, have all been shown to be critical for the host to control bacterial replication and dissemination in TB (Cooper et al., 1993; Flynn et al., 1995; Algood et al., 2005; Mayer-Barber et al., 2010).