AVP and Hyponatremia: Disadvantages of copeptin as a CVD biomarker include the large number of other disorders with which its elevated levels are associated, including respiratory disorders (e.g., acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lower respiratory tract infections, and acute dyspnea), sepsis, hemorrhagic and septic shock, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, hyponatremia, vasodilatory shock, diabetes insipidus, polycystic kidney disease, intracerebral hemorrhage, ischemic stroke, and traumatic brain injury [223,248].