INS and Hyperglycemia: Moreover, hyperglycemia has been linked to the stimulation of many metabolic pathways, including the NF-κB, c-Jun N-terminal kinases/stress-induced activated protein kinases (JNK/SAPK), and p38-MAPK (p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases) pathways, along with insulin resistance and β-cell dysfunction (Evans et al., 2003).