TP53 and cancer: Some GMs, such as GM1 and GM3, exhibit predominantly anti-proliferative effects in different cancers, such as colon, bladder, gliomas, and leukemias, by modulating cell cycle progression through PTEN and p53 stimulation, mitigating PDGF-mediated MAPK activation, and promoting apoptosis through BAX and BAD upregulation [235,258,259,260,261].