TNF and edema: Following cerebral ischemia, microglia, astrocytes, and neutrophils, as the main effector cells, release a large number of inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukins, chemokines, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), induce neuronal apoptosis, and contribute to microvascular dysfunction, secondary cerebral hemorrhage, and cerebral edema (Wang et al., 2019b; Shi et al., 2019; Jurcau and Simion, 2021).